Write a note on the revenue administration under the Sultan of Delhi.

The revenue administration under the Sultanate of Delhi during the medieval period played a pivotal role in shaping the economic structure and governance of the region. The Sultanate, established by various dynasties like the Slave Dynasty, Khalji Dynasty, Tughlaq Dynasty, and the Sayyid Dynasty, implemented distinct revenue systems to extract revenue from the agrarian economy. Here's a comprehensive note on the revenue administration under the Sultan of Delhi:

1. Iqta System:

• Character: The Iqta system, introduced during the early period of the Delhi Sultanate, was a form of land revenue system. It involved the grant of revenue-yielding territories to military officials, known as Iqtadars, in exchange for military service.
• Land Distribution: The Sultan granted Iqtas, which were essentially revenue assignments, to military commanders. Iqtadars collected revenue from their assigned territories and, in return, were responsible for maintaining law and order, providing military support, and remitting a portion of the revenue to the central authority.

2. Khalisa and Diwani Systems:

• Character: Over time, the Iqta system evolved into the Khalisa and Diwani systems. The Khalisa referred to lands directly controlled by the Sultan, while the Diwani represented lands under the revenue administration.
• Role: The Khalisa lands were managed by royal officials, while the Diwani lands were leased to revenue contractors known as Muqti or Zamindars. The revenue contractors collected revenue from the Diwani lands and retained a portion as their share.

3. Measurement of Land and Revenue Assessment:

• Batai and Kankut Systems: The revenue assessment was often based on the Batai (sharing) and Kankut (measurement) systems. Under Batai, the produce was divided between the state and the cultivator, while Kankut involved the measurement of land for revenue assessment.
• Standard Units: Land measurement units, such as the 'Gaz' and 'Bigha,' were standardized to ensure uniformity in revenue assessment. The revenue rates were fixed based on the quality of land and the crops cultivated.

4. Amils and Revenue Officials:

• Amils: The revenue administration was carried out by officials known as Amils or Diwans. They were responsible for revenue collection, maintaining records, and ensuring compliance with revenue regulations.
• Local Administration: The revenue officials operated at the local level, often stationed in towns or districts. They played a crucial role in mediating between the state and the local agrarian communities.

5. Tax on Cultivators:

• Crop Share and Cash Taxes: Taxes were levied on cultivators based on the type of crops grown. The state could demand a share of the agricultural produce or a fixed amount in cash, depending on the prevalent revenue system.

6. Challenges and Reforms:

• Administrative Challenges: The revenue administration faced challenges such as corruption, malpractices, and resistance from local communities. The complexity of revenue systems sometimes led to disputes and discontent among the peasantry.
• Reforms: Various Sultans attempted reforms to address administrative issues. For example, Ala-ud-din Khalji introduced the 'Hindu Rate,' a uniform land revenue rate for both Muslims and Hindus. Firuz Shah Tughlaq implemented measures to alleviate the burden on the peasantry.

7. Impact on Agrarian Society:

• Economic Impact: The revenue administration influenced the economic structure of the agrarian society. The extraction of revenue affected the income and livelihoods of cultivators, and the revenue assessment policies shaped the agricultural practices in different regions.
• Social Impact: The revenue system contributed to the stratification of society, with the elite class, including Iqtadars and revenue officials, benefiting from the system. It also influenced patterns of landownership and land tenure.

8. Legacy and Continuity:

• Mughal and Later Periods: The revenue administration under the Delhi Sultanate laid the groundwork for subsequent regimes, including the Mughals. The Mughals further refined revenue systems, introducing the Zamindari and Jagirdari systems that had elements inherited from the earlier Delhi Sultanate practices.

In conclusion, the revenue administration under the Sultan of Delhi played a central role in the governance and economic organization of the medieval agrarian society. The evolution of revenue systems, from Iqta to Khalisa and Diwani, reflects the dynamic nature of governance and administration during the Delhi Sultanate period. The impact of these revenue policies endured through subsequent periods, leaving a lasting legacy on the agrarian structures of the Indian subcontinent.