Analyse the features of the agrarian order and revenue organization of the Cholas during the 9 th to 13th centuries.

The Chola dynasty, which ruled over South India from the 9th to the 13th centuries, established a sophisticated agrarian system and revenue organization that contributed to the economic prosperity and political stability of their empire. The features of the Chola agrarian order and revenue administration are notable for their efficiency, organizational structure, and impact on rural society. Here's an analysis of these key features:

1. Land Distribution and Ownership:
   The Chola rulers implemented a well-organized land distribution system that granted land rights to various stakeholders, including temples, Brahmin priests, local chiefs (vallambar), and cultivators (uluvas). The king held ultimate ownership of the land, but revenue rights were delegated to different categories of beneficiaries. This decentralized ownership structure ensured local participation in agricultural activities and revenue collection.

2. System of Land Revenue:
   The Chola revenue system was based on a well-defined taxation framework known as the "Kadamai" or "Kani" system. Land revenue (known as "Kanikkani") was collected based on the fertility and productivity of the land. Revenue rates were determined by the quality of soil, water availability, and crop yield. The Chola administration conducted periodic surveys and assessments (known as "Naduval") to update revenue records and adjust tax rates accordingly.

3. Revenue Collection and Administration:
   Revenue collection was overseen by revenue officials called "Adigaram" or "Mahattarar" who were appointed by the king. These officials maintained detailed revenue records (known as "Sabha" or "Nel") documenting land holdings, crop yields, and tax payments. The revenue collected from different regions was used to finance the administration, military, and public works projects.

4. Incentives for Agriculture and Irrigation:
   The Chola rulers encouraged agricultural development by constructing irrigation tanks (such as "Eri" or "Kulam") and canals to enhance water supply for cultivation. They offered incentives like tax exemptions or reductions to promote the expansion of agricultural land and the adoption of efficient farming techniques. The Chola period witnessed significant advancements in agricultural productivity and water management.

5. Role of Local Assemblies (Sabhas):
   Local self-governing bodies known as "Sabhas" played a crucial role in rural administration and revenue collection. These assemblies, composed of village elders and representatives, assisted in resolving disputes, maintaining law and order, and overseeing local affairs. The Sabhas were responsible for ensuring equitable distribution of resources and upholding the interests of the farming community.

6. Temple Economy and Endowments:
   The Chola period saw a flourishing temple economy, with temples serving as centers of economic activity and land ownership. Many temples received extensive land grants (known as "Devadana" or "Brahmadeya") from the Chola kings and nobility, providing them with revenue from agricultural produce. Temple wealth and endowments played a significant role in sustaining religious institutions and cultural patronage.

7. Legacy of Chola Agrarian Order:
   The Chola agrarian system left a lasting legacy on South Indian society and economy. It promoted agricultural productivity, fostered community participation in governance, and facilitated economic prosperity through efficient revenue administration. The Chola administration's emphasis on irrigation, land tenure, and equitable taxation influenced subsequent dynasties and contributed to the region's cultural and economic development.

In summary, the agrarian order and revenue organization of the Cholas during the 9th to 13th centuries reflected a sophisticated system of land ownership, revenue collection, and agricultural development. Their policies and institutions contributed to the prosperity and stability of the Chola Empire, leaving a lasting impact on the socio-economic fabric of South India.